Garment Design - an overview (2024)

29.5.1.3 Garment design

Garment design is an integration of all the design elements, including colour, texture, space, lines, pattern silhouette, shape, proportion, balance, emphasis or focal point, rhythm and harmony. Each of these contributes towards the visual perception and psychological comfort of the garment. Principles of illusion can be utilised in garment design to flatter the figure of the wearer (Davis, 1996). For example, the Muller–Lyer illusion (a line with angled extensions at each end appears longer than a line of equal length, but with doubled back angled lines at each end) may be applied to pattern design to lengthen or shorten the perceived figure of the wearer. The lengthening effect may also be created by applying the horizontal–vertical illusion, i.e. a vertical line seems longer than a horizontal one of the same length.

9.5 Effect of garment design

Principles of illusion can be applied in garment design to flatter the figure of the wearer.²¹ For example, the Muller-Lyer illusion (viz. a line with angled extensions at each end appears longer than a line of equal length, but with angled lines at each end doubled back) may be applied in pattern design to lengthen or shorten the perceived figure of the wearer. The lengthening effect may also be created by applying the horizontal–vertical illusion, i.e. a vertical line seams longer than a horizontal one of the same length. The tendency to interpret diagonals and non-right-angles as rectangles seen in perspective, and to misjudge distances as a result, is called the Sander parallelogram. It can be used in dress design to make diagonals look longer than neighbouring horizontal or vertical lines. For example, the diagonal overlapping of the Japanese kimono helps to lengthen the upper bodice area. The effect of the spacing of the surrounding lines on the apparel angle sizes may be utilized in the collar design. For example, a V neck may look wider by having narrow lapels.

Effects of garment design

Garment design has a significant effect on moisture transfer, through its affect on the amount of body surface area covered, the looseness or tightness of fit, the wind penetration and the ventilation through the openings.

Chen et al.⁶⁴ investigated the effect of garment fit on the moisture vapour resistance of clothing, and found that moisture vapour resistance of clothing increases with the thickness of the air gap when the air gap is small. The rate of increase gradually decreases as the air gap increases, owing due to increased convection. The air gap thickness at which the vapour resistance reaches maximum depends on the fabric properties and wind conditions. Under windy conditions, the vapour resistance reaches a maximum when the air gap is about 6mm.

2.2 Ergonomic and biomechanical evaluation

The patternmaker drafts the paper pattern onto a plain fabric. The drape is thoroughly reviewed by the patternmaker and the designer.

Each garment pattern needs to have the style number, the name of the part, the balance mark, and the construction lines. The successive step can be to digitize it to turn the draft into a computer-aided design CAD/CAM.

2D → 3D: The 2D pattern pieces from the 3D CAD software are added to virtualization software (e.g.,Blender Online Community, 2015) to use it for the virtual try-on on a virtual human.

3D → 2D → 3D: It consists of designing 3D garments around a virtual human. Regarding that the 3D garment can be unwrapped in 2D pattern.

Fashion designers draw fashion illustrations and garment flats to design the concept, while patternmakers design patterns by measuring anthropometric dimensions of the end user. Communication between patternmakers and fashion designers is often lacking. As a consequence, the process is time-consuming and does not take into account what the user thinks about it.

Body shape is the major factor that influences the fit and satisfaction with clothing (Luible & Magnenat-Thalmann, 2008). Statistical shape modeling (SSM) is an intuitive approach to map out body shape variability of a 3D body shape database (Danckaers etal., 2014, 2018, 2019). The shape variance is described by shape parameters, which can be adapted to form a new realistic shape. Furthermore, body shapes belonging to a specific percentile of a target group can be visualized. SSM can intervene to the disadvantages mentioned earlier, creating a link between the end user and the apparel designer.

An SSM is a valuable tool for product designers, as it captures the variability of body geometry of a population. SSMs are built from 3D scans of a population of shapes. Therefore, they contain much more information than traditional anthropometrical measurements. SSMs are highly valuable for product designers because ergonomic products for a specific target population can be designed from these models. By adapting the parameters of the SSM, a new realistic shape can be formed. Product developers may exploit SSMs to design virtual design mannequins and explore the body shapes belonging to a specific percentile of a target group, for example, to visualize extreme shapes. Moreover, an SSM allows to simulate a specific 3D body shape (Park & Reed, 2015), which is useful for customization in a (possibly automated) workflow.

The innovative approach we propose concerns a combination of different digital technologies and applications to create a common co-design workflow for the design of a garment implemented in Blender Online Community (2015).

Human activities can then be replicated based on body shape and motion data collected on a subject by a mocap system (Scataglini etal., 2017, Scataglini, Andreoni etal., 2019, Scataglini, Danckaers, Haelterman, Huysmans, & Sijbers, 2019, Scataglini etal., 2019). This provides a visualization of a DHM based on anthropometry and biomechanics of the subject (Scataglini, Andreoni etal., 2019, Scataglini, Danckaers, Haelterman, Huysmans, & Sijbers, 2019, Scataglini etal., 2019).

A clustering algorithm can be used to determine a sizing system based on the biometrics features of the subject (Scataglini, Andreoni etal., 2019, Scataglini, Danckaers, Haelterman, Huysmans, & Sijbers, 2019, Scataglini etal., 2019). Considering a population, the smart shirt or vest meshes can be calculated from the anthropometric clustering evaluation according to Daanen etal., 2018; ISO 8559-2(2017).

10.4.2 Design of high-performance garments

The garment design has an impact on the wearer's comfort. Fit is a key element in design to avoid hindering mobility. No matter how well engineered the fabric is, it cannot be regarded as the best if there are fit problems. The design is expected to conform to the body shape and synchronize with the body movement to avoid limiting performance. Fit designs that enable a range of movements when stretching and bending improve mobility and provide overall comfort (Das & Alagirusamy, 2010). Garments intended for performance should not impair dexterity, cause heat exhaustion or physical distress. The design should also be stylish to encourage the wearer to use the garment and comply with the health and safety regulations. Product development for protective clothing has grown at a steady pace yielding a range of high-technology products such as body mapping technology for sportswear.

Appropriate design features enhance physiological comfort by reducing the build of heat and moisture around the skin (Performance Apparel Markets, 2012). A comfortable design requires a holistic approach that considers the necessary design components for high performance such as sizing, ventilation, seam technology, and body mapping technology. Some of the techniques used to control temperature and promote comfort include ventilation flaps, high collars, adjustable cuffs, and mesh panels (Performance Apparel Markets, 2013).

8.8 Conclusions and sources of further information and advice

We have reviewed several different aspects of garment simulation. In general there are three categories of techniques: geometrically based, physically based and hybrid. To model garments interacting with objects, collision detection and collision response should be handled. In some complicated simulation environments, there are many collision events occurring at the same time. Robust methods for handling them are essential for animating the garments. Moreover, parallel computation can be carried out for improving the simulation performance on multicore platforms with graphics processing units (GPUs).

We list further information based on the work of Jiang et al. (2008) on cloth simulation for applications and software.

11.3 Materials and design strategies to provide appropriate movement performance

Fabric properties and garment design are the two primary, interacting factors that contribute to, or impede garment comfort. Material properties that have an effect on movement include weight, thickness, stiffness, stretch, and recovery. Fabrics inherently have a certain degree of flex, but the amount varies greatly. Woven fabrics are generally more rigid than knits, as knitted fabrics have inherent flexibility due to the interlaced structure of the yarns in knits. According to Hatch (1993), the appropriate range of percent elongation for textile materials for tailored clothing is between 15%–25%, for sportswear is between 20%–35%, for active wear is between 35%–50%, and for form fitting garments is between 30%–40%. Joseph (1981) identifies the amount of elongation for regular wear as between 10% and 25%, and for more active wear between 35% and 50%. It is essential that the fabrics also have a high level of recovery, generally in the range of 95% to 98%.

Fabrics used in protective clothing are often extremely rigid compared to these ranges, due to the thickness of yarns with desired properties and fabric structures or coatings designed to protect against environmental challenges. Overall, the interaction of fabric properties, garment design, and sizing and fit determine the range of movement possible in a garment (Branson & Nam, 2008).

One common solution to provide movement, when more rigid fabrics are desired for their specific properties, is to design sections in a garment that are more flexible in areas where more movement is needed. This can be done by introducing more flexible fabrics (i.e., a stretch fabric in a panel under the arm in a rain jacket), by increasing the flexibility of a fabric with design features (i.e., pleating or gathers), or by treating a fabric differently in different areas (i.e. a knitted gardening glove with rubberized areas and untreated, more flexible areas). Incorporating flexible areas in a garment design is a particularly useful strategy when a garment must be tethered to the body, and therefore cannot move freely over the surface of the body. Fourt and Hollies (1969) discuss a variety of ways that clothing can be designed with variations for the different needs within the same garment at different locations on the body.

The amount of frictional force of a fabric can increase as the moisture in the fabric and on the skin increases as a result of sweating, resulting in both thermal discomfort and binding of the garment with movement. Restrictions to movement from a garment also have the effect of increasing the metabolic cost of wearing the garment overall. On the other hand, in a well designed and well fitted garment the ‘bellows effect’ generated by movement can decrease the thermal load. Air in the garment structure can be moved through the openings of the garment in a pumping action that ventilates the body (Bittel et al., 1992; Dukes-Dobos et al., 1992).

Proper fit is also essential to create garments of any type that move and balance well on the active body. Good design of clothing requires the development of garment shapes that provide proper ease (the added circumference or length of the garment that allows the body to move) and proper set (the ‘balance’ of the garment that keeps it in place so that the interaction of gravity and frictional properties of the fabric do not displace the garment on the body with movement). This can be difficult to achieve, especially in a heavy garment with many layers such as a firefighter’s turnout gear. Multiple prototypes and testing of the garment in active positions are necessary to create a well balanced and well fitted garment appropriate for a wide range of body sizes and proportions.

Many other creative design strategies can be applied to increase movement in clothing, such as overlapping segments or stacking segments of inflexible materials next to one another, isolating segments from one another and tethering them directly to the moving body part, or creating rigid joints that can roll, slide, rotate, or twist (Watkins, 1995).

13.6 Conclusion

As with all garment design development, a confirmation of the correct choice of fabric, components and manufacturing technology should be considered as a whole to achieve a garment that is functional, aesthetic and economical to produce, for the intended end-user. The new technologies discussed have given garment designers and manufacturers additional scope for innovation in the design development and production processes. A mixture of both traditional and new technologies can be employed. A designer’s existing understanding of the traditional use of fabrics, garment pattern cutting and manufacturing techniques will continue to provide background knowledge for the utilization of these new technologies. To investigate these technologies initially, the designer and technicians may take existing garments and experiment in making them using the new methods. The experience gained will inform subsequent projects.

At present, these novel processes are emerging primarily in the outdoor and performance sportswear garment categories. DIM is a brand that designs and produces lingerie using both heat bonding and ultrasonic welding. Branded outdoor sportswear such as ‘The North Face’ and ‘Patagonia’, also use ultrasonic welding and heat bonding processes. These companies use terminology such as ‘magic seam’ and ‘Composite Seam System’, respectively. Freedom of creation utilise the rapid manufacturing process to produce textile products that come in their own packaging. Although these new technologies are expensive to implement and utilise in the current manufacturing environment, the techniques will eventually become cheaper. Development is needed in the transference from the sample to the production methodologies, with the necessary financial commitment.

Overseas factories can now produce garments using some of these technologies. The present technologies described lend themselves, primarily, to garments that are simple, with as few components as possible or specified for specific areas of a garment. Additional restrictions for the designer include the current limitation in fabric choice, based on the use of synthetics such as polyester and/or nylon. The psyche of the customer is another consideration. Do people want glued garments? Do women know they are already wearing glued garments – for example, lingerie? It may be a job for the marketing department to explain the new technologies to the public in terms of what is available to meet customer needs. Customers are looking towards more bespoke, limited editions of garment collections, with quality and that stand out from the crowd. Could this technology find its way into the fashion market via this route? Is it a way for the United Kingdom to compete with the Far East?

15.7 Conclusions

Integrated digital processes for garment design present opportunities for creation of unique garments with great synergy between garment elements and textile structure and aesthetics. Simultaneous creation of the textile design aesthetic along with the garment silhouette and structure allows development of visual design elements that complement the garment in ways not achievable when fabric and garment are completed in separate steps. Further, an integrated process allows development of structures to support specific garment functional requirements as with the case of engineering knitted features for performance garments. As the supporting technologies for integrated digital design continue to advance, production of engineered, even one-of-a-kind garments becomes more viable in the market. Combined with business strategies such as mass customization, such products may become more widely available.

Integration of digital technologies is not seamless. Challenges to integration exist both in terms of product design and technical development expertise and in ability to integrate various digital applications. Garment production methods which historically have involved simultaneous production of fabric and garment, such as knitting, present fewer challenges in terms of digital integration but perhaps more in terms of expertise required. As these challenges continue to be addressed by researchers and practitioners, the potential of integrated digital technologies will be realized.

4.8.3 Apparel design and fit

The challenge for virtual garment design and fit is to create a 3D free-form virtual fashion design system. Such a system could offer 3D design on a scan that represents a target market, which allows for inclusion of ease and dynamic properties (with the opportunity to evaluate various kinds of ease, minimum movement and style) (Petrova et al., 2003). Visualisation systems for evaluating fit, drape and appearance are already available (Spanglang, 2005). These interactive comfort evaluation tools for adjusting the fit (of the weft, warp and shear directions) are being introduced into virtual product development systems (Volino and Magnenat-Thalmann, 2005). The operative might, however, be assisted by the introduction of a garment ease classification system, i.e. a system identifying minimum fit and movement ease that might be used for both traditional and digital product development processes. Methods for evaluating fit for woven and knitted fabrics have been described by Fan et al. (2004), but the standardisation of fit remains as complex as garment sizing and labelling. The application of 3D body-scanning technology, visualisation systems and analysis software is helping to establish new objective procedures for the estimation of minimum garment ease (Loker et al., 2003). It may be that these technologies, together with kinanthropometric theory, might be used to establish objective methods for evaluating minimum ease for movement. They might include basic anatomical positions, either undertaken while the body is standing upright, such as joint motion (Watkins, 1984), or those movements related to physical activity, such as walking and sitting, as well as those used when consumers are engaged in specific activities while at work or sport.