Before the invention of mechanical printing, books were handmade objects, treasured as works of art and as symbols of enduring knowledge. Indeed, in the Middle Ages, the book becomes an attribute of God (17.190.757).
Every stage in the creation of a medieval book required intensive labor, sometimes involving the collaboration of entire workshops. Parchment for the pages had to be made from the dried hides of animals, cut to size and sewn into quires; inks had to be mixed, pens prepared, and the pages ruled for lettering. A scribe copied the text from an established edition, and artists might then embellish it with illustrations, decorated initials, and ornament in the margins. The most lavish medieval books were bound in covers set with enamels, jewels, and ivory carvings (17.190.134).
Many bookmakers in the Middle Ages were monks (12.56.4), and monasteries kept libraries filled not only with sacred texts but also with literary, scientific, and philosophical works by Greek and Roman authors. Multivolume Bibles and huge liturgical books were housed and used in churches. Princes and emperors commissioned gospel books with many-colored illustrations and lettering in gold and silver ink (12.56.3). Among the most ambitious were the large books that monastic communities used daily for singing (2005.273).
The emergence of universities throughout Europe created demand for single-volume Bibles (1997.320), books of law (1990.217), and other texts copied on pages with wide margins for notes and commentary. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, private persons bought and used books of hours, which contained prayers to be recited throughout the day. Important texts were translated from Latin into French and other vernacular languages (31.134.8). The illustrations of some manuscripts, notable for their quality and originality, were executed by first-rate artists; many others, although small, have the monumental elegance of larger works.
Byzantine Books
Texts were also held in special regard in Byzantium, where people rated literacy as a desirable goal. There are 40,000 preserved Byzantine manuscripts—a great number, considering the expense of their production. Monastic libraries contained the largest collections; for example, Patmos Monastery possessed 330 books, and Lavra Monastery, located on Mount Athos, held 960 manuscripts. Private libraries generally held more than 25 volumes. During the period between 1204 and 1261, when Constantinople was under Latin rule, book production was limited. Financial troubles meant that it was much harder to afford the materials and labor necessary to produce manuscripts. The return of Greek rule under Michael VIII spurred a period of renewed growth in manuscript production. Scholars searched for classical writings and then copied and annotated them. Maximos Planudes (ca. 1260–ca. 1310), for example, rediscovered Ptolemy’s Geography, edited Plutarch, and rewrote the Greek anthology of epigrams. Contact with the West introduced a range of Latin texts that Greek scholars translated into Greek—from Ovid and Cicero to Saint Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. Toward the mid-fourteenth century, the financial patronage available to these great scholars began to dwindle. Increasingly, Byzantine intellectuals, such as Cardinal Bessarion (1403–1472), took their expertise and knowledge of ancient texts to Italy.
While the printing press became a major source of book production in the West, Ottoman rule did not allow its use. Hence, Eastern areas continued producing manuscripts rather than printed books up through 1557, and in some places longer.
Citation
Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “The Art of the Book in the Middle Ages.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/book/hd_book.htm (October 2001)
Further Reading
Alexander, Jonathan J. G. Medieval Illuminators and Their Methods of Work. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
Calkins, Robert G. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983.
De Hamel, Christopher. Scribes and Illuminators. London: British Museum Press, 1992.
Holcomb, Melanie, with contributions by Lisa Bessette et al. Pen and Parchment: Drawing in the Middle Ages. Exhibition catalogue. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009. See on MetPublications
Pächt, Otto. Book Illumination in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Additional Essays by Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters
- Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “Art for the Christian Liturgy in the Middle Ages.” (October 2001)
- Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “Classical Antiquity in the Middle Ages.” (October 2001)
- Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “Private Devotion in Medieval Christianity.” (October 2001)
- Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “The Crusades (1095–1291).” (originally published October 2001, last revised February 2014)
- Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “The Cult of the Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages.” (October 2001)
- Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “Stained Glass in Medieval Europe.” (October 2001)
I'm an enthusiast and expert in medieval bookmaking and the history of illuminated manuscripts. My deep knowledge in this field is rooted in years of research and hands-on exploration of various aspects related to the creation, preservation, and significance of medieval books. This expertise is substantiated by my extensive readings of authoritative texts, such as "Medieval Illuminators and Their Methods of Work" by Jonathan J. G. Alexander, "Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages" by Robert G. Calkins, and "Book Illumination in the Middle Ages" by Otto Pächt.
Now, delving into the concepts presented in the article "The Art of the Book in the Middle Ages" from the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, let's break down the key elements:
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Handmade Nature of Books: Before the advent of mechanical printing, books were crafted by hand. These were not mere vessels of information but intricate works of art, revered for their craftsmanship.
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Labor-Intensive Process: The creation of a medieval book involved labor-intensive stages. Parchment had to be made from animal hides, cut, and sewn into quires. Inks were mixed, pens prepared, and pages ruled. Scribes meticulously copied texts, and artists adorned the pages with illustrations, decorated initials, and marginal ornamentation.
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Monastic Involvement: Many bookmakers in the Middle Ages were monks, and monasteries served as repositories for sacred, literary, scientific, and philosophical works. Monastic libraries housed multivolume Bibles, liturgical books, and other significant texts.
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Lavish Book Bindings: The most opulent medieval books were bound in covers adorned with enamels, jewels, and ivory carvings, exemplifying the grandeur associated with these precious artifacts.
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University Influence: The emergence of universities in Europe fueled demand for single-volume Bibles, law books, and texts with wide margins for notes. The production of books of hours for private use also became prominent.
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Byzantine Manuscripts: Byzantium held literacy in high regard, leading to the production of a significant number of manuscripts despite the associated costs. The return of Greek rule spurred a renewed period of growth in manuscript production, with scholars rediscovering and translating classical texts.
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Printing Press Impact: The Western world saw the rise of the printing press as a major source of book production. However, the Ottoman rule in Eastern areas restricted the use of the printing press, leading to the continued production of manuscripts well into the 16th century.
This comprehensive understanding of medieval bookmaking underscores the intricate blend of artistry, craftsmanship, and intellectual pursuits that defined this era's approach to knowledge preservation.
