The Elements of Style (2024)

1918

by

William Strunk, Jr.

Professor of English
Cornell University

Privately Printed
Ithaca, New York
1918

Copyright1918By William Strunk, Jr.

Press of W. P. Humphrey, Geneva, N.Y.

I. Introductory

II. Elementary Rules of Usage

1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with 's

2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last

3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas

4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause

5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma

6. Do not break sentences in two

7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject

8. Divide words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation and pronunciation

III. Elementary Principles ofComposition

9. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic

10. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity with the beginning

11. Use the active voice

12. Put statements in positive form

13. Omit needless words

14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences

15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form

16. Keep related words together

17. In summaries, keep to one tense

18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

IV. A Few Matters of Form

V. Words and Expressions CommonlyMisued

VI. Words Commonly Misspelled

I. Introductory

This book is intended for use in English courses in which thepractice of composition is combined with the study of literature. Itaims to give in brief space the principal requirements of plainEnglish style. It aims to lighten the task of instructor and studentby concentrating attention (in Chapters IIand III) on a few essentials, the rules ofusage and principles of composition most commonly violated. Thenumbers of the sections may be used as references in correctingmanuscript.

The book covers only a small portion of the field of Englishstyle, but the experience of its writer has been that once past theessentials, students profit most by individual instruction based onthe problems of their own work, and that each instructor has his ownbody of theory, which he prefers to that offered by any textbook.

The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in CornellUniversity have greatly helped him in the preparation of hismanuscript. Mr. George McLane Wood has kindly consented to theinclusion under Rule 11 of some materialfrom his Suggestions to Authors.

The following books are recommended for reference or furtherstudy: in connection with Chapters II andIV, F. Howard Collins, Author andPrinter (Henry Frowde); Chicago University Press, Manual ofStyle; T. L. De Vinne Correct Composition (The CenturyCompany); Horace Hart, Rules for Compositors and Printers(Oxford University Press); George McLane Wood, Extracts from theStyle-Book of the Government Printing Office (United StatesGeological Survey); in connection with ChaptersIII and V, Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch,The Art of Writing (Putnams), especially the chapter,Interlude on Jargon; George McLane Wood, Suggestions toAuthors (United States Geological Survey); John Leslie Hall,English Usage (Scott, Foresman and Co.); James P. Kelly,Workmanship in Words (Little, Brown and Co.).

It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregardthe rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader willusually find in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at thecost of the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he willprobably do best to follow the rules. After he has learned, by theirguidance, to write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let himlook, for the secrets of style, to the study of the masters ofliterature.

II. Elementary Rules of Usage

1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with's.

Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,

Charles's friend

Burns's poems

the witch's malice

This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Officeand of the Oxford University Press.

Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names in-es and -is, the possessive Jesus', and suchforms as for conscience' sake, for righteousness' sake. Butsuch forms as Achilles' heel, Moses' laws, Isis' temple arecommonly replaced by

the heel of Achilles

the laws of Moses

the temple of Isis

The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, andoneself have no apostrophe.

2. In a series of three or more terms with asingle conjunction, use a comma after each term except thelast.

Thus write,

red, white, and blue

honest, energetic, but headstrong

He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.

This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and ofthe Oxford University Press.

In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as

Brown, Shipley and Company

The abbreviation etc.,even if only a single term comes before it, is always preceded by acomma.

3. Enclose parenthetic expressions betweencommas.

The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.

This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decidewhether a single word, such as however,or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption tothe flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omitthe commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable,he must never omit one comma and leave the other. Such punctuationas

Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,

or

My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,

is indefensible.

Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with thisrule, set off by commas.

The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.

Similar clauses introduced by where and when aresimilarly punctuated.

In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.

Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.

In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when,and where are non-restrictive; they do not limit theapplication of the words on which they depend, but add,parenthetically, statements supplementing those in the principalclauses. Each sentence is a combination of two statements which mighthave been made independently.

The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested.

Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.

Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at Nether Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles from Bridgewater.

Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.

The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.

In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application ofthe word candidate to a single person. Unlike those above, thesentence cannot be split into two independent statements.

The abbreviations etc.and jr. are always preceded by a comma, and except at the endof a sentence, followed by one.

Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressionsbetween commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependentclauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence. Thesentences quoted in this section and under Rules 4,5, 6, 7, 16,and 18 should afford sufficient guidance.

If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, placethe first comma before the conjunction, not after it.

He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile.

4. Place a comma before and or butintroducing an independent clause.

The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.

Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem tobe in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the commais reached, the second clause has the appearance of an after-thought.Further, and, is the least specific of connectives. Usedbetween independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation existsbetween them without defining that relation. In the example above,the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might berewritten:

As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.

Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:

Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.

But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compactand periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the stylefrom becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief.Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common ineasy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not toconstruct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule14).

Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced byas (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, andwhile (in the sense of and at the same time) likewiserequire a comma before the conjunction.

If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to beset off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no commais needed after the conjunction.

The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape.

For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the nextsection.

5. Do not join independent clauses by acomma.

If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by aconjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper markof punctuation is a semicolon.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

It is of course equally correct to write the above as twosentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.

If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma (Rule4).

Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.

Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such asaccordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, andnot by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.

I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about.

In general, however, it is best, in writing, to avoid usingso in this manner; there is danger that the writer who uses itat all may use it too often. A simple correction, usuallyserviceable, is to omit the word so, and begin the firstclause with as:

As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about.

If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma isusually permissible:

Man proposes, God disposes.

The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.

6. Do not break sentences in two.

In other words, do not use periods for commas.

I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.

He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world, and lived in half a dozen countries.

In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by acomma, and the following word begun with a small letter.

It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve thepurpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:

Again and again he called out. No reply.

The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis iswarranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder inpunctuation.

Rules 3, 4, 5,and 6 cover the most important principles in thepunctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughlymastered that their application becomes second nature.

7. A participial phrase at the beginning of asentence must refer to the grammatical subject.

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.

The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, notto the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, hemust recast the sentence:

He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.

Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition,nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under thesame rule if they begin the sentence.

Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.

Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.

8. Divide words at line-ends, in accordance withtheir formation and pronunciation.

If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables ofa word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless thisinvolves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only twoletters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can belaid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:

a. Divide the word according to its formation:

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

b. Divide "on the vowel:"

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions possible); deco-rative; presi-dent;

c. Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown fromexamples:

for-tune; pic-ture; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in anumber of pages of any carefully printed book.

III. Elementary Principles of Composition

9. Make the paragraph the unit of composition:one paragraph to each topic.

If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or ifyou intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need ofsubdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summaryof a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrativemerely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, anyone of these is best written in a single paragraph. After theparagraph has been written, it should be examined to see whethersubdivision will not improve it.

Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics,each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The objectof treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aidthe reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that anew step in the development of the subject has been reached.

The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of thecomposition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem mightconsist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist oftwo paragraphs:

A. Account of the work.

B. Critical discussion.

A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, mightconsist of seven paragraphs:

A. Facts of composition and publication.

B. Kind of poem; metrical form.

C. Subject.

D. Treatment of subject.

E. For what chiefly remarkable.

F. Wherein characteristic of the writer.

G. Relationship to other works.

The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem.Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imaginedcirc*mstances of the poem (the situation), if these call forexplanation, and would then state the subject and outline itsdevelopment. If the poem is a narrative in the third personthroughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summaryof the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and showhow they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in thenarrative are chiefly emphasized.

A novel might be discussed under the heads:

A. Setting.

B. Plot.

C. Characters.

D. Purpose.

A historical event might be discussed under the heads:

A. What led up to the event.

B. Account of the event.

C. What the event led up to.

In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer wouldprobably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topicshere given.

As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed asparagraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition,indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition orargument.

In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is aparagraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each changeof speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrativeare combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works offiction.

10. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topicsentence; end it in conformity with the beginning.

Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice hererecommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph ashe begins to read it, and to retain the purpose in mind as he endsit. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph,particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which

1. the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
2. the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the statement made in the topic sentence; and
3. the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence.

Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, isparticularly to be avoided.

If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relationto what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need tobe expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase(again; therefore; for the same reason) in the topic sentence.Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence byone or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than onesuch sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart thetransitional sentences as a separate paragraph.

According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above,relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or moreof several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topicsentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining itsterms, by denying the converse, by giving illustrations or specificinstances; he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it byshowing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, hemay carry out several of these processes.

In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with aconcise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the detailsthat follow.

The breeze served us admirably.

The campaign opened with a series of reverses.

The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.

But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. Morecommonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject withwhat the paragraph is to be principally concerned.

At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.

He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.

Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.

The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are oftenwithout even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break betweenthem serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing intoprominence some detail of the action.

11. Use the active voice.

The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than thepassive:

I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.

This is much better than

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.

The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise.If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me,"

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,

it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some personundisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember thisvisit?

This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer shouldentirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenientand sometimes necessary.

The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.

Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.

The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatistsof the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes ofmodern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject ofthe sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voiceis to be used.

The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forciblewriting. This is true not only in narrative principally concernedwith action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence ofdescription or exposition can be made lively and emphatic bysubstituting a transitive in the active voice for some suchperfunctory expression as there is, or could beheard.

As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly uponanother.

In both the examples above, before correction, the word properlyrelated to the second passive is made the subject of the first.

A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive constructiona noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb nofunction beyond that of completing the sentence.

Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," inwhich the predicate "was prohibited" expresses something not impliedin "export."

12. Put statements in positiveform.

Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating,non-committal language. Use the word not as a means of denialor in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.

The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well asnegative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess atthe writer's intention.

All three examples show the weakness inherent in the wordnot. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfiedwith being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is.Hence, as a rule, it is better to express a negative in positiveform.

The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:

Not charity, but simple justice.

Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.

Negative words other than not are usually strong:

The sun never sets upon the British flag.

13. Omit needless words.

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain nounnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the samereason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machineno unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all hissentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjectsonly in outline, but that every word tell.

Many expressions in common use violate this principle:

In especial the expression the fact that should be revisedout of every sentence in which it occurs.

See also under case,character, nature,system in ChapterV.

Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous.

As positive statement is more concise than negative, and theactive voice more concise than the passive, many of the examplesgiven under Rules 11 and 12illustrate this rule as well.

A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a singlecomplex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences which might toadvantage be combined into one.

14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences.

This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particulartype, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the secondintroduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences ofthis type may be unexceptionable (see under Rule 4),a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious.

An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph ofsentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but, andless frequently, who, which, when, where, and while,these last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).

Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is badbecause of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanicalsymmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in theparagraphs quoted under Rule 10, or in any piece ofgood English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to VanityFair.

If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences ofthe type described, he should recast enough of them to remove themonotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of twoclauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses,by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever bestrepresent the real relations of the thought.

15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires thatexpressions of similar content and function should be outwardlysimilar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize morereadily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances fromthe Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitionsof the Lord's Prayer.

The unskilful writer often violates this principle, from amistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of hisexpressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order toemphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, seethe paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 10.But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallelconstruction.

The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer isundecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form ofexpression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that thewriter has at least made his choice and abided by it.

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all themembers of a series must either be used only before the first term orelse be repeated before each term.

Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, butalso; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should befollowed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations ofthis rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

See also the third example under Rule 12 and thelast under Rule 13.

It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very largenumber of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutivesentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probablyfind that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can beclassified in groups, and that he need apply the principle onlywithin each group. Otherwise he had best avoid the difficulty byputting his statements in the form of a table.

16. Keep related words together.

The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means ofshowing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far aspossible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that arerelated in thought, and keep apart those which are not sorelated.

The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as arule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred tothe beginning.

The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlesslyinterrupts the natural order of the main clause. This objection,however, does not usually hold when the order is interrupted only bya relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it holdin periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberatelyused means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).

The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after itsantecedent.

If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comesat the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.

A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative,because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.

The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs

Modifiers should come, if possible next to the word they modify.If several expressions modify the same word, they should be soarranged that no wrong relation is suggested.

17. In summaries, keep to one tense.

In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always usethe present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he shouldpreferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers.If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should beexpressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.

An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Juliet, meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the nondelivery of the letter.

But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense inindirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.

The Legate inquires who struck the blow.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writerchooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to theother gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compareRule 15).

In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, asin summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer shouldavoid intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "thespeaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author alsothinks," or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, oncefor all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words inrepeating the notification.

In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summariesof one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children inprimary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in theirown words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature thewriter should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may findit necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating thesubject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; hemay cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he shouldaim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not asummary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of hisdiscussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do betternot to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim fromthe beginning at establishing general conclusions.

18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writerdesires to make most prominent is usually the end of thesentence.

The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominenceis usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element inthe sentence, as it is in the second example.

The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from theprominence which it gives to the main statement.

Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.

With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourselves unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Anyelement in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphaticwhen placed first.

Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.

So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardlyby its position alone. In the sentence,

Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning andfrom the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of asentence must take the position of the predicate.

Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

The principle that the proper place for what is to be made mostprominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, tothe sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of acomposition.

IV. A Few Matters of Form

Headings. Leave a blank line, or itsequivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. Onsucceeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.

Numerals. Do not spell out dates or otherserial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may beappropriate.

Parentheses. A sentence containing anexpression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks ofparenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent.The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, exceptthat the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or anexclamation point.

I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.

He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.

(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized,the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)

Quotations. Formal quotations, cited asdocumentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed inquotation marks.

The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state."

Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects ofverbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.

I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come."

Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature."

Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on afresh line and centred, but not enclosed in quotation marks.

Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven!

Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirectdiscourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.

Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary originrequire no quotation marks.

These are the times that try men's souls.

He lives far from the madding crowd.

The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.

References. In scholarly work requiring exactreferences, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the fullforms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, givethe references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of thesentence. Omit the words act, scene, line, book, volume, page,except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicatedbelow.

Titles. For the titles of literary works,scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usageof editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalizedinitials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with orwithout quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript byunderscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows adifferent practice. Omit initial A or The from titleswhen you place the possessive before them.

The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes; A Tale of Two Cities; Dicken's Tale of Two Cities.

V. Words and Expressions Commonly Misused

(Many of the words and expressions here listed are not so much badEnglish as bad style, the commonplaces of careless writing. Asillustrated under Feature, the propercorrection is likely to be not the replacement of one word or set ofwords by another, but the replacement of vague generality by definitestatement.)

All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as adetached phrase in the sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other usesbetter avoided. Always written as two words.

As good or better than. Expressions of thistype should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

As to whether. Whether is sufficient;see under Rule 13.

Bid. Takes the infinitive without to.The past tense is bade.

Case. The Concise Oxford Dictionarybegins its definition of this word: "instance of a thing's occurring;usual state of affairs." In these two senses, the word is usuallyunnecessary.

See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68-71, andQuiller-Couch, The Art of Writing, pp. 103-106.

Certainly. Used indiscriminately by somespeakers, much as others use very, tointensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad inspeech, is even worse in writing.

Character. Often simply redundant, used froma mere habit of wordiness.

Claim, vb. With object-noun, means layclaim to. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense isclearly involved: "He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir."(But even here, "claimed to be" would be better.) Not to be used as asubstitute for declare, maintain, or charge.

Compare. To compare to is to point outor imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially ofdifferent order; to compare with is mainly to point outdifferences, between objects regarded as essentially of the sameorder. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to abattle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Parishas been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modernLondon.

Clever. This word has been greatly overused;it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.

Consider. Not followed by as when itmeans, "believe to be." "I consider him thoroughly competent."Compare, "The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier andsecond as administrator," where "considered" means "examined" or"discussed."

Dependable. A needless substitute forreliable, trustworthy.

Due to. Incorrectly used for through,because of, or owing to, in adverbial phrases: "He lostthe first game, due to carelessness." In correct use related aspredicate or as modifier to a particular noun: "This invention is dueto Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires."

Effect. As noun, means result; asverb, means to bring about, accomplish (not to be confusedwith affect, which means "to influence").

As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions,music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects inpale green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtleeffects;" "a charming effect was produced by." The writer who has adefinite meaning to express will not take refuge in suchvagueness.

Etc. Not to be used of persons. Equivalentto and the rest, and so forth, and hence not to be used if oneof these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be leftin doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objectionwhen it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, orimmaterial words at the end of a quotation.

At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example, orany similar expression, etc. is incorrect.

Fact. Use this word only of matters of akind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. Thata particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at acertain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleonwas the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate ofCalifornia is delightful, however incontestable they may be, are notproperly facts.

On the formula the fact that, see under Rule13.

Factor. A hackneyed word; the expressions ofwhich it forms part can usually be replaced by something more directand idiomatic.

Feature. Another hackneyed word; likefactor it usually adds nothing to thesentence in which it occurs.

As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a specialattraction, to be avoided.

Fix. Colloquial in America for arrange,prepare, mend. In writing restrict it to its literary senses,fasten, make firm or immovable, etc.

He is a man who. A common type of redundantexpression; see Rule 13.

However. In the meaning nevertheless,not to come first in its sentence or clause.

When however comes first, it means in whatever wayor to whatever extent.

However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.

However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute forrather (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiarstyle, for something like (before nouns). Restrict it to itsliteral sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil resin;" "I dislike thatkind of notoriety." The same holds true of sort of.

Less. Should not be misused forfewer.

Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. "Histroubles are less than mine" means "His troubles are not so great asmine." "His troubles are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are notso numerous as mine." It is, however, correct to say, "The signers ofthe petition were less than a hundred, "where the round number, ahundred, is something like a collective noun, and less isthought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.

Line, along these lines. Line in thesense of course of procedure, conduct, thought, is allowable,but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase alongthese lines, that a writer who aims at freshness or originalityhad better discard it entirely.

Literal, literally. Often incorrectly usedin support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.

Lose out. Meant to be more emphatic thanlose, but actually less so, because of its commonness. Thesame holds true of try out, win out, sign up, register up.With a number of verbs, out and up form idiomaticcombinations: find out, run out, turn out, cheer up, dry up, makeup, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simpleverb. Lose out is not.

Most. Not to be used for almost.

Nature. Often simply redundant, used likecharacter.

Often vaguely used in such expressions as "a lover of nature;""poems about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, thereader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery,rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits ofsquirrels.

Near by. Adverbial phrase, not yet fullyaccepted as good English, though the analogy of close by andhard by seems to justify it. Near, or near athand, is as good, if not better.

Not to be used as an adjective; use neighboring.

Oftentimes, ofttimes. Archaic forms, nolonger in good use. The modern word is often.

One hundred and one. Retain the andin this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvaryingusage of English prose from Old English times.

One of the most. Avoid beginning essaysor paragraphs with this formula, as, "One of the most interestingdevelopments of modern science is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of themost interesting countries of Europe." There is nothing wrong inthis; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.

People. The people is a politicalterm, not to be confused with the public. From the peoplecomes political support or opposition; from the public comes artisticappreciation or commercial patronage.

The word people is not to be used with words of number, inplace of persons. If of "six people" five went away, how many"people" would be left?

Phase. Means a stage of transition ordevelopment: "the phases of the moon;" "the last phase." Not to beused for aspect or topic.

Possess. Not to be used as a meresubstitute for have or own.

Respective, respectively. These words mayusually be omitted with advantage.

In some kinds of formal writing, as in geometrical proofs, it maybe necessary to use respectively, but it should not appear inwriting on ordinary subjects.

So. Avoid, in writing, the use of soas an intensifier: "so good;" "so warm;" "so delightful."

On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule4.

Sort of. See under Kindof.

State. Not to be used as a mere substitutefor say, remark. Restrict it to the sense of express fullyor clearly, as, "He refused to state his objections."

Student body. A needless and awkwardexpression, meaning no more than the simple word students.

System. Frequently used without need.

Thanking you in advance. This sounds as ifthe writer meant, "It will not be worth my while to write to youagain." Simply write, "Thanking you," and if the favor which you haverequested is granted, write a letter of acknowledgment.

They. A common inaccuracy is the use of theplural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression suchas each, each one, everybody, every one, many a man, which,though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be inthe singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, isthe use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody, anyone, somebody, some one, the intention being either to avoid theawkward "he or she," or to avoid committing oneself to either. Somebashful speakers even say, "A friend of mine told me that they,etc."

Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent isor must be feminine.

Very. Use this word sparingly. Whereemphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves.

Viewpoint. Write point of view, butdo not misuse this, as many do, for view oropinion.

While. Avoid the indiscriminate use of thisword for and, but, and although. Many writers use itfrequently as a substitute for and or but, either froma mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which ofthe two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is bestreplaced by a semicolon.

Its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable insentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.

While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.

This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,

I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a better cause.

Compare:

The paraphrase,

The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly,

shows why the use of while is incorrect.

In general, the writer will do well to use while only withstrict literalness, in the sense of during the time that.

Whom. Often incorrectly used for whobefore he said or similar expressions, when it is really thesubject of a following verb.

Worth while. Overworked as a term of vagueapproval and (with not) of disapproval. Strictly applicableonly to actions: "Is it worth while to telegraph?"

The use of worth while before a noun ("a worth whilestory") is indefensible.

Would. A conditional statement in the firstperson requires should, not would.

I should not have succeeded without his help.

The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verbin the past tense is should, not would.

He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.

To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, withoutwould, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, moreemphatic.

VI. Words Often Misspelled

Write to-day, to-night, to-morrow (but not together)with hyphen.

Write any one, every one, some one, some time (except thesense of formerly) as two words.

THE END