Playwright Part 3
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Dramatic Genres
Historical conventions of playwriting can also be expressed in terms ofgenre. At many points in western history, genre definitions were inextricablylinked to evaluations of the quality of dramatic writing. Hence, playwrightswrote plays that fit the conventions of their time and place. The twentiethand twenty-first centuries are unusual in that, in spite of the rapid riseof many new artistic ideas about theatre, new artistic movements havenot supplanted earlier ones. Instead, we have a broad range of kinds ofdrama being produced all around us.
The oldest definition of dramatic genre is Aristotle's Poetics, written circa 335 BC in Greece. The forms of tragedy and comedy thathe described over 2000 years ago still exist today. Tragedy inits oldest sense deals with human beings taking on superhuman forces,such as gods or fate. In the end the humans lose, but, because of themagnitude of their struggle, the mere effort is ennobling for the characterand for the people in the audience. The ancient tragic characters wereinvariably kings, heros, or demigods. The diction of the plays was poetic and formal in style. The plays were intensive in structure, with the climax following logically from the action on stage. The goal of tragedy, according to Aristotle, is catharsis, or a purgation of pity and fear inthe audience. In other words, the audience should empathize completelywith the protagonist, emotionally following all the turns of the character'sfortunes, until, when the character is ultimately defeated, we are purgedof all of the (negative) emotions we have been vicariously sharing.
In the early 1700's, when the middle class began to supplant the artistocracy across Europe, common man tragedy as a new sub-genre of tragedybegan. In the 20th century, the American Arthur Miller (see photo) hasargued that tragedy need not and should not be about characters of elevatedsocial station; instead, what a democracy like America proves is thateach of us is capable of taking on the superhuman forces in life and thata simple, middle class hero is more representative of us today than agod or king. Miller's Death of a Salesman is one of his most famousplays and his best example of common man tragedy: a salesman believes his whole life in "the American Dream", that hard work and being well-liked will lead to prosperity for himself and his children, but he finds asan old man that he has been deceived and ultimately is worth more to hisfamily dead than alive.
Comedy has a range of subgenres that can be understood along aspectrum from high comedy to low comedy. High comedy, while funny,shares the most with tragedy and tends to be specific to the culture thatcreated it. For example, comedy of manners is a form of high comedy thatemphasizes an "in group's" manners, speech, dress, and tastes. Much humouris made at the expense of those who are trying unsuccessfully to enterthe "in group" or those who are completely ignorant of the "in group's"tastes. This style of comedy was particularly popular in 17th centuryFrance and England among the artistocracy. Recent movies like American Pie or other movies about teenagers have much in common with comedyof manners.
Comedy of character is comedy based on one or more comically exaggeratedcharacters. The French writer Molière (see image) wrote many playsin which one central authority figure, for whom the play is usually named,has a greatly exaggerated fault which in turn causes comic problems forhis family and friends. Examples include The Imaginary Invalidand The Miser. Even though he wrote in the 17th century, the ideais still common in television comedies: consider how many have been basedon a single comic character: Roseanne and Seinfeld were twowildly successful ones.
Comedy of situation is familiar today as television "sitcoms,"an abbreviation of the older term which means comedy based on situations,or plots. Seinfeld, while begun on Jerry Seinfeld's reputation, is an excellent example of a situation comedy. The characters may be funny, but it is primarily the situations in which they find themselves thatare the source of humour and the longevity of the series. A televisionshow that revolves more on comedy than plot would be Fraser.
Many comedies of character and sitcoms are also domestic comedies, meaning that they deal with domestic plots and relationships. A verytypical comic plot, typical of theatre and feature films, is boy-meets-girl,then some impediment to their relationship arises, often in the form of thegirl's or boy's family, problems are cleared up, and finally boy-gets-or-marries-girl.This is the most typical domestic comedy, but domestic comedies might alsorevolve around marital or family problems, like Married With Children, or even The Osbournes.
Satire is a form of comedy that uses contemporary events in anexaggerated or altered context as its primary source of humour. Oftensatire is aimed at politics, such as in the Saturday Night Live skits where cast members impersonate presidents or other Washington figures,or Comedy Central's Daily Show. Because it parodies current events, satire loses its relevence more quickly than many other forms of comedy.Parody, closely related to satire, usually makes fun of another artor cultural form. Mike Myers' grotesque seventies detective Austin Powersis a parody of James Bond; even the films' titles make the parody clear (Gold Member as opposed to Gold Finger; Spy Who Shagged Me as opposedto Spy Who Loved Me).
Farce is an example of "low comedy." Because it relies more onphysical than verbal humour, it can appeal to people from a variety ofcultural and linguistic backgrounds: the comedy of a character slippingon a banana peel need not be translated. Characters in farce are oftenone dimensional or cartoonish. Examples of farce are the Marx Brothersmovies, many Monty Python sketches, or recent movies like Jim Carrey'sAce Ventura.
Melodrama is neither comedy nor tragedy, but combines some elementsof each into its own unique form. It arose originally in the late 18thcentury, and several authors gained international fame writing melodramasby 1800. The defining elements of melodrama are an elaborate plot withmany twists and turns, clearly defined hero and villain characters, andplots selected for maximum stage spectacle. Melodramas packed theatresthroughout the nineteenth century; at this point in western history, citieswere growing rapidly and theatres were the most popular entertainmentfor the growing middle and working classes in the new urban areas. Theatresoften held up to 3000 spectators. One of the largest theatres in New York,The Bowery, became known as "The Slaughterhouse" because of the melodramas with gory spectacle that it frequently produced. Other enormously populartopics of melodrama were frontier stories, rags to riches stories, andstories about race relations. The stage adaptation of Stowe's novel UncleTom's Cabin remains the most popular play in American history: it heldthe stage consistently from 1852 until 1930, often playing in up to tencities at once. The melodramas of the 19th century mark the peak of popularityof live theatre: more people went to see theatre than at any other pointin western history. Melodramas are also important for us to understandin the twentieth century because the film industry copied melodramaticplots, characters, and use of spectacle when it began to seriously competewith theatre for the popular audience in the early twentieth century.Many of the most successful movies and television shows produced in theUnited States today follow the same formulas as stage melodramas. Consider the last western, mystery, or action movie you saw, and compare it withthe defining features of melodrama: lots of plot twists, clear good guysvs. bad guys, and many special effects.
Tragicomedy is a twentieth century name given to plays that combineaspects of comedy and tragedy to make essentially serious points. It wasapplied retroactively to Shakespeare's late plays and seemed to capture thefunny yet profoundly sad state of Beckett's characters in "Theatre of theAbsurd" as well. In the 2000's, we are more likely to use the word drama to describe plays, movies, and television shows which are essentiallyserious but may have funny characters or episodes. In fact, serious writerstoday are likely to infuse some humour into their plays, allowing us to defuseour anxiety while watching difficult events on stage. Kushner's Angelsin America is an excellent example of a drama that allows audiences atleast as much laughter as anxiety over the very serious topic of AIDS.
The above genres are defined broadly, and many more subdivisions of eachgenre exist. Genres are most useful when used to understand plays, asguides against which to measure your experience of plays. When used prescriptively,as the way plays "should be" written or as a way to judge the qualityof plays, genre definitions can be too restrictive. However, it is byrecognizing genres -- by characters, plot elements, and themes -- thatwe know what to expect of a play or film and can settle in to enjoyingit.
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I am an enthusiast and expert in the field of dramatic literature and playwriting, having delved deeply into the historical conventions and genres that have shaped the course of theatrical expression. My knowledge extends across various periods, from the ancient works of Aristotle to the contemporary masterpieces of playwrights like Arthur Miller. I am well-versed in the evolution of dramatic genres and their significance in different cultural contexts.
In the provided article, the exploration of playwrighting is multifaceted, covering historical conventions, dramatic genres, and key figures who have significantly contributed to the world of theatre. Let's break down the concepts mentioned in the text:
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Historical Conventions of Playwriting: The article touches upon how historical conventions of playwriting were linked to evaluations of dramatic writing quality. Playwrights crafted works that adhered to the conventions of their time and place. The 20th and 21st centuries are highlighted for the coexistence of various artistic ideas and movements.
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Dramatic Genres: a. Tragedy:
- Aristotle's Poetics, dating back to 335 BC, provides the oldest definition of dramatic genre. Tragedy involves human confrontation with superhuman forces, often leading to the tragic downfall of the characters.
- The goal of tragedy, as per Aristotle, is catharsis—a purgation of pity and fear in the audience.
b. Common Man Tragedy:
- In the 1700s, with the rise of the middle class, a sub-genre of tragedy emerged, emphasizing common individuals facing superhuman forces. Arthur Miller's "Death of a Salesman" is cited as an example.
c. Comedy:
- Comedy is categorized into sub-genres ranging from high comedy to low comedy.
- High comedy, such as comedy of manners, focuses on cultural nuances and manners within an "in group."
- Comedy of character involves comically exaggerated characters, as seen in the works of Molière.
d. Comedy of Situation:
- Comedy of situation, often seen in sitcoms, derives humor primarily from the situations characters find themselves in.
e. Domestic Comedy:
- Many comedies, including sitcoms, revolve around domestic plots and relationships, such as the classic "boy-meets-girl" scenario.
f. Satire and Parody:
- Satire uses contemporary events in an exaggerated context, often targeting political subjects.
- Parody, closely related to satire, mocks other art or cultural forms. Mike Myers' Austin Powers is cited as an example.
g. Farce:
- Farce is characterized by physical rather than verbal humor and often features one-dimensional or cartoonish characters.
h. Melodrama:
- Melodrama combines elements of comedy and tragedy, featuring elaborate plots, clearly defined heroes and villains, and spectacle. It gained popularity in the 19th century.
i. Tragicomedy:
- Tragicomedy refers to plays that combine aspects of comedy and tragedy to convey serious points. The term is applied retroactively to Shakespeare's late plays.
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Twentieth Century Drama:
- The term "drama" is used to describe works that are essentially serious but may incorporate humor. Kushner's "Angels in America" is cited as an example.
Genres, as outlined in the article, serve as guides for understanding and appreciating plays, allowing audiences to anticipate and engage with the diverse expressions of dramatic literature.
